Fig 2: Graphical abstract. DMD gene deficiency increases intracellular calcium levels, triggers mitochondrial dysfunction, and leads to a shift in cellular energy metabolism towards glycolysis, thereby promoting cell proliferation and migration

Fig 3: DMD gene deficiency upregulates glycolysis. (A, B) Detection of intracellular and extracellular glucose levels between the groups. n = 3, ***P < 0.001. (C, D) Intracellular and extracellular lactic acid levels in each group. n = 3, **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001. (E-G) Key enzymes involved in glycolysis were detected at both transcriptional and translational levels. n = 3, *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001. (H-K) WB and qRT-PCR were used to detect the expression of glycolytic molecules in each group treated with or without 2-DG. n = 3, ns, not significant; *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001

Fig 4: DMD gene overexpression inhibits the proliferation and migration of GC cells. (A) Cell viability was assessed the CCK8 assay in each group. n = 3, ns, not significant; ***P < 0.001. (B) EdU staining was performed to evaluate cell proliferation in each group. n = 3, scale bar = 100 μm, **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001. (C) Effects of DMD gene knockout and/or overexpression on the colony-forming ability of cells, as assessed by the colony formation assay. n = 3, ns, not significant; *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01. (D) Cell cycle analysis was performed to evaluate the cell proliferation in each group. n = 3, ns, not significant; *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001. (E) Cell migration ability was determined using a wound-healing assay for each group. n = 3, scale bar = 100 μm, ns, not significant; **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001

Fig 5: ANXA11 is elevated in regenerative myofibers of DMD patients and mdx mice.a Parallel analysis of proteomics data generated from mass spectrometry of DMD patients and mdx mice. b A Venn diagram, based on single-nucleus RNA sequencing data, illustrates the overlap of genes in the regenerative myofibers of DMD patients and the mdx mouse model, with an abs (Log2FC) ≥ 0.85. c Immunoblot results of bicipital muscle tissue from both DMD patients and healthy controls. d Comparison of relative mRNA expression levels of ANXA11 from DMD patients and healthy controls (n = 3 per group). e Immunoblot results of TA muscle tissue from mdx and WT mice. f Comparison of relative mRNA expression levels of Anxa11 from mdx and WT mice (n = 3 per group). g Immunofluorescence staining of TA muscle cross-sections from WT and mdx mice using antibodies against Dystrophin, ANXA11, and MYH3. Scale bar, 50 μm. Representative images from n = 3 biological replicates are shown. Source data are provided as a Source Data file, and the exact p-values have been provided as required in the Source Data. Data are presented as means ± SD. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01 as determined by unpaired t-test (two-sided).