Fig 1: Functional validation and molecular characterization of L. plantarum EVs in anti-inflammatory responses. (A)-(C) Cell viability (A) LDH cytotoxicity (B) and cytokine levels (IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, and IL-12) (C) in untreated control cells and S. aureus EV-infected cells pre- or post-treated (30 min) with L. plantarum EVs or NAD+. (D) Representative STORM images and quantification of cytokine cluster numbers for IL-6, IL-8, and IL-10 as a function of L. plantarum EV treatment duration, measured using STORM images. Post-treatment values are shown as red curves, pre-treatment values as green curves, and control values (DMEM-treated) as black curves. Blue dashed line: nucleus boundary. White dashed line: cell boundary. (E) Representative multicolor STORM images showing IL-6, IL-8, or IL-10 together with Golgi or lysosome in untreated control and S. aureus EV-infected cells that were either pre-treated (30 min) or post-treated (30 min) with L. plantarum EVs. Colocalization values are shown on the bottom. Blue dashed line: nucleus boundary. White dashed line: cell boundary. Scale bars = 5 μm in (D) and (E) and 1 μm in the yellow box region in (D) and (E). (n = 5, mean ± SD) Two-tailed Student’s t-test, ns: p > 0.05, ***p < 0.001 compared to control