Fig 1: Effect of Beaucarnea recurvata leaf extract (BRLE) at doses of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg/day on colonic oxidative stress markers, cytokine levels, network pharmacology targets and histopathological features in rats with acetic acid-induced ulcerative colitis. (A) GSH: Colonic content of reduced glutathione. (B) MDA: Colonic malondialdehyde levels. (C) IL-10: Levels of the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-10. (D) TNF-α: Levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-alpha. (E) EGFR: Expression level of epidermal growth factor receptor. (F) SRC: Expression level of SRC kinase. (G) p-STAT3: Expression level of phosphorylated STAT3. (H) AKT1: Expression level of AKT1 protein. Data are expressed as mean ± SEM (n = 5/group). Statistical analysis was performed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post hoc test. **** p < 0.0001, *** p < 0.001, ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05; ns = not significant. (I–M) Representative photomicrographs of H&E-stained colonic sections; (I) control group showing normal histological architecture. Key features include the lamina epithelialis (arrowhead), lamina propria and muscularis mucosa (arrow), submucosa (red star), muscular layer (black star), and serosa. (J) diseased group showing ulcerative colitis with remnant of necrotic surface epithelium (red arrowhead) adjacent to cystically dilated some colonic crypts (red curved arrow). Heavy infiltration of mucosa, submucosa by eosinophils (red thick arrow), macrophages (yellow thick arrow), lymphocytes (yellow thin arrow), fibrin threads, and few neutrophils beside edema (red star) and dilated submucosal vasculature (red thin arrow). Necrotic myocytes with pyknotic nuclei and infiltrated with abundant numbers of inflammatory cells at muscular layer. (K) BRLE100-treated group showing mucous exudate adhered to colonic epithelium (yellow arrowhead), still present ulcerated mucosal surface with appearance of tunica muscularis toward luminal surface (red arrowhead). Hyalinized or necrotic tunica muscularis beside fibrin threads & few inflammatory cells at submucosal layer (yellow star). Exudation at serosal layer. (L) BRLE200-treated group showing regenerated colonic surface epithelium (arrowhead), subepithelial granulation tissue infiltrated with moderate numbers of inflammatory cells (yellow star), hyperplastic or regenerated colonic crypts (red thin arrow) beside some cystically dilated colonic crypts (red curved arrow), edema with few inflammatory cells infiltrates submucosal layer (black star). (M) BRLE400-treated group showing healed ulcerated area with desquamated mucosal epithelium (red arrowhead), inflammatory cells infiltrates in between colonic crypts, crypt dilatation (red curved arrow), submucosal edema (yellow star), mild number of inflammatory cells within muscular layer beside serosal exudates. Scale bar: 100 μm.