Fig 2: BDNF differences between treated MS and the HC. Boxplot graph presenting the differences between BDNF levels after the treatment of PwMS (in green) and HC (in blue). The Independent Sample T-Test reveals statistically significant differences between the groups (p = 0.003), with the HC group having significantly lower BDNF values. BDNF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor; HC, healthy control; MS, multiple sclerosis. X, mean value; lower box limit, 25% quartile value; central line, median value; upper box limit, 75% quartile value; lower whisker, minimum value; upper whisker, maximum value.

Fig 3: Effects of functional and aerobic training on cognitive status (A) and plasma BDNF concentration (B) in older women with Mild Cognitive Impairment. FT: Functional Training; AT: Aerobic Training; CG: Control Group.

Fig 4: Correlations between changes in plasma lycopene, BDNF concentrations, cognitive performance, and resting-state functional brain connectivity. Pearson or Spearman correlation coefficients were calculated depending on variable distribution. Δ values represent within-subject changes from baseline to final assessment in each intervention period; data from both conditions were pooled, resulting in two observations per participant. p < 0.05 (*), p < 0.01 (**), p < 0.001 (***). AN, auditory network; BDNF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor; DAN, dorsal attention network; FNAME, Face-Name Associative Memory Exam; M-WCST, Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test; rFPN, right frontoparietal network.