Fig 1: The effects of crotonaldehyde (CRA) on human aortic endothelial cells (HAECs). A DNA damage induced by CRA in HAECs deficient in the FANC pathway. HAECs were exposed to a range of CRA concentrations—0, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, and 4 µM—and incubated for a period of 8 days. Drug lethal dose (LD50) values were identified from data generated using survival curves and have been indicated by an arrow. Data are expressed as mean ± standard deviation of five independent experiments. B Effect of CRA on the depletion of mitochondrial membrane potential. C Effect of CRA on GSH levels. D Activation of COX-2 by CRA. E Activation of MAPK pathways, including P-ERK, P-JNK, and P-P38, by CRA. Data are expressed as mean ± standard deviation of three independent experiments (B–E); statistically significant differences are indicated by an asterisk; p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant